Music’s “design features”: Musical motivation, musical pulse, and musical pitch - John C. Bispham

 Music, Communication and Affect

 

Music, like every other way of human communication, exists and depends upon culture (Bispham, 2009, p. 30). Even though the meaning of music is the result of a specific cultural and social context, all of us seem to be able to engage and to respond to some aspects of music outside our own culture (Bispham, 2009, p. 30). This kind of engagement works in different dimensions such as biological, social or cultural spaces (Bispham, 2009, p. 30).

 

Music is usually associated with emotions. People describing “shivers” or “chills” while listening to music are evidence of strong emotional experiences (Bispham, 2009, p. 30). However, there is still not enough evidence to prove that musical emotions are in any way different from other types of emotions (Bispham, 2009, p. 30). Maybe the most common example could be the use of music in society or even in psychology as a means of altering or creating particular moods in individuals or groups (Bispham, 2009, p. 31). To talk about music, communication and affect it is necessary to introduce some of the main concepts behind music:

 

1. Musical Motivation

 

Have you ever thought what is the psychological motivation behind listening or producing music? In psychological literature we find two main forms of musical motivation: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is described as “a natural inclination, a spontaneous interest that represents a source of enjoyment”. While an extrinsic motivation, usually refers to the performance of an activity in order to reach some kind of outcome or reward (Bispham, 2009, p. 31). For example, music making can at times be extrinsically motivated in auditions, seeking fame etc. However, most musical engagements are “playful” and represent a way to explore different areas of social interaction (Bispham, 2009, p. 31).

 

 

2. Musical Pulse and Musical Pitch

 

Music and its cultural manifestations are always shifting (Bispham, 2009, p. 32). For example, imagine for a moment comparing Tibetan monotone chanting with Japanese taiko drumming and trying to explain to an alien species why both are considered to be music while chimpanzee’s pant-hoot call is not considered to be music at all (Bispham, 2009, p. 32) Concepts like pulse, rhythm, melody and harmony are widely considered to be fundamental features of music. However not all of them are always present at the same time. Music can be entirely non-pitch based, and does not necessarily need melody, harmony or the use of scales (Bispham, 2009, p. 32).

 

3. Musical Pulse

 

A feature unique to what we call rhythm in music is the way people interact with it through a process called “entrainment”. Entrainment happens when individuals follow a musical rhythm (Bispham, 2009, p. 33).

 

Some research has proved that even neonates show a capacity to “entrain” with the movements and sounds of a caregiver. However, it seems that the ability to entrain specifically with music, activating the motor system in an interactive way, does not fully emerge until after the first year of life (Bispham, 2009, p. 33).

 

4. Musical Pitch

 

Musical pitch is built upon the ability to produce and engage with a sustained and stable frequency (Bispham, 2009, p. 34). Creating a sustained frequency depends on the ability to produce sound that varies in loudness, pitch and timbre (Bispham, 2009, p. 34). The ability to sustain a stable pitch appears gradually in human infant development and needs the control of several muscles in vocal production (Bispham, 2009, p. 34).

 

On the functionality of music

 

All of these concepts: musical motivation, musical pulse and musical pitch are the basis of affective interactions with music. Humans have always been in need of social interactions. So, throughout history, music and the features we have described here have been an efficient way of achieving it (Bispham, 2009, p. 35).

 

In contrast to linguistic interaction, musical pulse and musical pitch allow people to share more or less common, affective interactions. Music may be considered to help in socio-affective interactions. Which makes particular sense when thinking about the use of music in ceremonial rituals, where there is a desire to reach a specific motivational state (Bispham, 2009, p. 36).

 

However, it is important to clarify that it is not clear how this merge of social and affective states in music and ritual could have impacted individual or group evolutionary fitness. It seems fair to assume that music emerged as a result of a series of evolutionary adaptations. And we can easily argue that it has embodied multiple functions in society (Bispham, 2009, p. 36).

 

Reference:

 

Bispham, J. C. (2009). Music’s “design features”: Musical motivation, musical pulse, and musical pitch. Musicae Scientiae, 13(2_suppl), 41–61. https://doi.org/10.1177/1029864909013002041

 

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